The 3-D image was of a human rib cage, and it rotated in midair. And the holographic rib cage rattled me.

It was my first experience with a Display Of The Future, and it set me on a mission. In the subsequent years, I've been hunting down display prototypes, talking with experts, and visiting labs. In short, I've been on a quest for the perfect display.

Now You See It

Even though holographic video blew me away when I first saw it, I quickly composed myself. It's simply not the sort of thing that will be commercially available any time soon.

I talked to Gregg Favalora, 3-D expert and founder of Actuality Systems, about the commercial viability of high-resolution 3-D video. His company broke resolution records with its display-a 100-million-voxel (3-D pixel) device that made images for radiologists and engineers hunting for oil reserves. The details of these 3-D images look eerily realistic, but Actuality had a heck of a time finding the right market for it.

In the end, the company only sold 30 systems at $200,000 each and it has now ceased engineering operations. And that MIT holographic video system I saw in a few years ago is still trapped in the lab. The lesson: no matter how extraordinary your technology, it's impractical for the people unless you can efficiently manufacture it in large numbers.

I See Practicality

At the opposite end of the price spectrum is LCD. It's cheap as dirt thanks to the billions of dollars of factories built over the past two decades. I wanted to get a look at the way LCDs are made and try to find clues for how a more interesting or useful display-like a reflective e-reader or an OLED screen-could scale up and become cheap.

So I took a trip down to Applied Materials in Santa Clara, California, a company that supplies 90 percent of the LCD industry with manufacturing equipment. What I saw was impressive: the newest fabs are built around sheets of glass—backplanes of LCDs—that are the size of a garage door. They're only as thick as six sheets of paper, and each one can yield eight large screen TVs.

The machines that deposit electronics on the glass are behemoths-taller than I can reach and with an area slightly larger than a garage door. In a fab, six of these machines are arrange circularly, and from above they look like a giant mechanized flower. The sheets of glass slide in like a floppy disk into a drive, and come out coated with thin film transistors.

The bigger the glass, the more displays can be pumped out of a factory, and the cheaper all sizes of LCD displays become. According to Sid Rosenblatt, the CFO of Universal Display Corporation, a big fab can make six 50-inch LCDs every three to four minutes. At that volume, how can anything else compete with LCD?

Fitting In

Well, instead of beating them, startup Pixel Qi decided to join them. The company's screens are all LCD—built on the same lines and with the same materials as any other liquid crystal display—but with an additional mode in which the power-hungry backlight is off, and the display reflects ambient light.

I've seen Pixel Qi's displays and visited with Mary Lou Jepsen, the startup's founder and the former CTO of the One Laptop Per Child project. Jepsen spends most of her time in Taipei, the capital of Displayland, but on a sunny day last fall, I caught her at her houseboat in Sausalito. It was the perfect time and place to try out an LCD that is most impressive in bright light.

In its reflective mode, the display is black and white, similar to a Kindle or Sony Reader except it's faster-capable of video, albeit in monochrome. The first batch of Pixel Qi screens is scheduled to come off the line this month. Jepsen says more designs that further reduce power consumption are on the way. In one, she explains that the screen, when not needing to refresh, should be able to shut down the central processing unit(and wake it up within milliseconds when it's in use).

As for a color reflective mode, Jepsen says it could be possible in a couple of years. The concept, which involves a particular arrangement of liquid crystals, is based on her PhD thesis, but it's admittedly a more complex design than the first Pixel Qi screens. Her first priority, she says, is making sure that Pixel Qi can ship its first products quickly and successfully.

Bright and Beautiful

While Pixel Qi might be making cheap displays that are easy on the eyes and energy efficient, they can't compare to the beauty and simplicity of OLED screens, in which each pixel emits its own light. The whites are whiter, the blacks are blacker, and the overall image is just gorgeous.

Even better, the manufacturing process is as simple as it gets. It's layer of organic material that can be printed between two layers of electrodes. This means that OLED displays have the potential to fold, roll, and be built over large areas.

Concepts I've seen: a paper-thin, flexible display slammed by a hammer without breaking, a display that's see-through when the power's off, and large area OLED coating that act as a window, a wall, or a display, depending on its mode.

In terms of touch, I'm keeping an eye on a new type of technology that's being integrated into the electronic foundation of OLED displays and LCDs too. It's called in-cell technology, and there are a number of variants, but one type incorporates photodetectors into the pixels of a screen. It's ideal for OLED displays, because it can be added without adding thickness, allowing them to maintain their sleek good looks.

If there were ever a perfect display, OLED is it.

The Holdup

In a conversation with Vladimir Bulovic, a professor at MIT (and star of the famous light-emitting pickle video) we waxed poetic on the possibilities of OLEDs. Bulovic believes that it's only a matter of time before OLEDs take their rightful place at the head of the display industry. The reason we have to wait is simply bad timing. "If back in the 1970s, we had OLEDs, no one would even know what an LCD is today," he said.

The widely understood problem with OLED displays, however, is that the technology doesn't exist to mass manufacture them on large sheets of glass like those I saw at Applied Material. Therefore, their beauty is relegated to smaller screens like cell phone displays, Sony's 11-inch (expensive) TV, and concept demos.

Engineers are working on the problem, of course. Bulovic told me about a former student of his, named Conor Madigan, who has an OLED-printing startup in Menlo Park called Kateeva. I got a hold of Madigan who said his company, which uses a hybrid approach to printing large-scale OLED display, is well funded (even in these difficult economic times) and the display industry is really starting to push large-scale OLED technology.

While it's true that big display makers are promising big OLED screens in the next couple of years, I'm not holding my breath. Even when the technology for printing large-scale OLED displays arrives, it will still take significant investments to scale up manufacturing. It's difficult for companies to justify investing too much money in OLED displays while LCD sales are still doing well and continue to get cheaper. Besides, these large-screen OLEDs will still be made on glass, just like LCD, which keeps things rigid, fragile, and heavy.

Past Glass

In order to have a light, flexible, rugged OLED display, it's obvious that display makers must go with plastic instead of glass. Plastic Logic, is promising the world's first plastic-backed screens with printed organic transistors, by early next year.

I've handled a proto-version of Que, Plastic Logic's e-reader, at the company's Mountain View headquarters and was impressed by the form factor. While it's still rigid, it's light as a thin stack of papers. And because it's made of plastic, it's robust. I felt like flinging it across the boardroom where I sat with the head of marketing and a public relations handler. I didn't.

Here's the bad news for Plastic Logic: it all comes back to scalability. At the recent Printed Electronics conference in San Jose, I had lunchtime conversations with people who just shake their head at Plastic Logic's challenges. A number of them expressed skepticism that the manufacturing process could scale.

Printed organic transistors currently can't compete in speed with amorphous silicon transistors used in LCDs and OLED displays. And the company's printing technology is done in a single fab in Dresden, which could make it difficult to produce the e-reader in large volume. In other words, it won't be cheap or widespread, at least in the near future.

Roll With It

However, the folks at HP Labs think they have a scalable way to make plastic-backed displays with fast silicon transistors. On a recent tour of HP Labs I saw the proof: sheets of plastic, tens of meters long, are rolled onto tubes and are loaded and locked into a system that imprints silicon transistors onto the material.

Carl Taussig, the director of HP's information surfaces lab, walked me through the process of the so-called Self Aligned Imprint Lithography. Plastic, with a shiny coating, spins on a series of cylinders, where it is exposed to chemicals, ultra-violet light, etching solutions, and ionized gasses. The roll-to-roll setups are compact, and they don't require clean-room level purity that other display processes do.

Taussig, who is also responsible for inventing the DVD-RW, showed me prototypes, built with HP's silicon-on-plastic transistors. One of these plastic backplanes controlled an E Ink display. Some of the pixels that were supposed to be black appeared gray, but these prototypes help the researchers find the problems in the roll-to-roll process. If they see a blown-out pixel, they retrace their steps to find where in the process the problem arose. 


In another demonstration, I saw a new type of reflective display developed at HP that was about the size of a smart phone screen. It has color and video and is one of the best-looking reflective screen I've seen. Technical details were sparse (they will come out early next year), but Taussig told me that part of the trick is to make a pixel out of three layers of color dyes that take incoming white light and reflect specific colors of it back at you, something like the way that butterfly wings reflect light.

Within Two Years

While Taussig doesn't think roll-to-roll will replace LCD processes anytime soon, he hopes it can help plastic become the foundation for reflective displays as well as emissive displays like those made of OLEDs. HP has licensed its roll-to-roll technology to PowerFilm, a thin film solar manufacturer. And recently, PowerFilm's subsidiary Phicot has started to commercially developing the process for electronics. The first products will be displays for soldiers that may be integrated into clothing or wrap around their arms.

Combining HP's roll-to-roll manufacturing with OLEDs and a reflective reading technology is the closest thing to the perfect display that I've seen. So I ask Taussig how long it's going to take to make the process reliable. He's optimistic that Phicot can iron out the problems soon. "To be successful we need to roll this out within two years," he says, since the first plastic displays will hit the market in 2010.

In talking with Taussig, it's clear to me that even though he's a researcher, he's focused on making plastic displays practical. He knows the only way to do that is with solid, cost-effective manufacturing. Once the manufacturing problems are solved, he says, plastic displays become inevitable. "My grandkids will never believe that we made displays with glass," he says. "Everything will be on plastic."

I can't wait. The perfect screen will be lightweight, energy-efficient, and able to take various forms—flexible, transparent, and with touch or some other form of gesture recognition. I want colors so vibrant that images look real enough to grab. Still, I want to read on it without feeling like I'm staring at a flashlight. And it's got to be cheap.

So far, the displays I've seen come close. And while nothing yet gets it all right, there are some up-and-coming technologies-and, crucially, emerging manufacturing processes-that give me confidence that the perfect display is on the way.

Kate Greene spends most of her day staring at the screens of her MacBook Pro and iPhone. She became a journalist by way of physics, where she worked in a basement lab with lasers and a lot of liquid nitrogen. Currently, she writes for publications like The Economist and Technology Review and goes on display hunts for Gizmodo. She can be found on the Internet at kategreene.net and on twitter

Suspended in a flexible matrix of carbon nanotubes and rubber, the new OLED displays can be stretched an additional 50% of their normal size and wrapped around complex, 3D surfaces. No, they aren't paper-thin like other prototypes we've seen and the graphics are currently monochrome, but these OLEDs appear to be incredibly practical for everyday use. Plus, the displays can be manufactured through an industrial printing process that should make the technology inexpensive to boot...you know...some day...or never...or tomorrow...or something. Neither children's toys nor condoms will ever be the same. [Technology Review via KurzweilAI]

The tree is rolled up from a 15-foot by 6-inch scroll of OLED panels lit green. Since I'm kind of scared at the scruffy mountain men types that tend to descend on NYC as part of the migratory holiday Balsam Fir Trade, this might just be what I need for my apartment.

[GE Press Release]

The display is desaturated, claims a wimpy 840x504 resolution and requires distracting frames that break up the image. Seeing this, though, gives the impression that even if it is years and years away, the day when we can control the natural light in our houses, watch video or displays a HUD on the living room window will come. Eventually. [Tech-On via OLED Display]

OLED stands for organic light-emitting diode, meaning that the glow-y part that lights up when zapped with electricity has organic stuff in it. Because the particles light up by their own damn selves, they don't need a backlight like LCDs, so they can be stupid thin, and they use way less power than either LCD or plasma. The problem is, they're still a bitch to make, which is why they're expensive and teeny.

Wilson and Benny Boo took a tour of the place where OLED panels are born, and got the full rundown on how they're made. Basically, phosphorescent colored particles are fused to a substrate (glass, metallic or plastic screen), which can happen in one four ways (which are covered in more detail here):
• Vacuum thermal evaporation
• Organic vapor phase deposition
• Ink-jet printing
• Organic vapor printing

Though they each deal with the tiny pixel-sized dots of phosphorescent material slightly differently, all of them are a pain in the ass (read: expensive). The first two techniques require the substrate to be suspended in the air, making larger screens harder to do well (they tend to bow in the middle). Hence, Sony's wonder TV is a mere 11 inches and costs more than a good plasma, and Samsung's 31-incher was nigh miraculous.

One of the major problems with OLEDs is that the organic materials degrade over time, as organic things tend to do, with blue being the quickest fader. To wit, it came out that Sony's XEL-1's half life is only about 17,000 hours, not the 30K it was rated for, and not even close to the 60K+ hours that many LCDs and plasmas get.

And here's something you probably didn't know: While OLED does consume less power than LCD or plasma, its energy needs are content independent, so you'll be suckin' the same wattage whether you're watching the darkest scenes of Batman Begins or a virtual whitewall.

But, rest assured OLED is probably what you'll be watching Obama grow old and nasty on, with most majors promising mass production of big OLED TVs in the next couple of years. Presumably, that means prices and sizes will start getting reasonable. Not fast enough for our tastes, though—super thin, gorgeous picture, and none of the hallmark problems of LCD and plasma? Do want. So, so bad. [Giz Explains]

Plus, the solar charging properties of the compounds means that there would be no need for a traditional power source. When applied to a surface, the OLED screen could run under the power that it generates for an indefinite amount of time. It could even be applied to the back of cellphones to provide a constant charge. Again, this sort of technology seems seriously out there, but the researchers believe that they can have a working prototype up and running within two years. I'll believe it when I see it. [Tech Radar via OLED-info]

CeeLites are just 1/8" thick and use up just 4 watts of power per square foot, but can be made into banners 12 feet long and 30 inches high. Rather than OLEDs, they use light-emitting capacitors that emit electricity into a phosphorescent substrate.

They may not have all the magical properties of OLEDs, and they won't be made into high-def TVs anytime soon, but they can be contained in simple plastic, which makes them more easy to bring to market than OLEDs. You might start seeing illuminated wall panels in restaurants and or self-lighting ads on the sides of buses.

The company says they are so rugged they can take the beating of a pressure washer. Great, cool, but how well do they hold up when it's hammer time? [CNet]

We gowned up, donned stylish hairnets and observed OLED panel fabrication up close, a process that involves expensive super-heated dope and something called a shadow mask. (Sounds like fairly nice evening in Vegas, doesn't it?)

OLEDs (organic light-emitting diodes) differ from LCDs in that they don't need a backlight of any kind, because each pixel is made of a phosphorescent particle that lights up on its own when excited. The trick is getting the particles onto the glass, plastic or metallic screen—the substrate, they call it—in an orderly fashion. There are a few techniques, but here's the basic process:

1. The phosphorescent colored particles, or "dope," are prepared. The three colors, red, green and blue, are actually made from powders that are red, yellow and orange. To this day no one is certain why. The powder is carried in vials to the fabrication room.

2. Meanwhile, in a Class 100 clean room (shown in video and gallery under UV protective yellow-tinted glass), the substrate is prepared to be fused with the particles. I think I saw a salad bar in the back, but our guide, Janice Mahon, VP of Technology Commercialization, only laughed knowingly. Intel has Class 10 clean rooms, btw, but Jesus says his mom's house is even cleaner than that.

3. Here's where the magic happens: dope meets substrate in a sticky act of love. In the big business of OLEDs these days there are four ways to make this happen:

• Vacuum Thermal Evaporation - This is UDC's tried and true technique, a hot and steamy method involving super-heated dope that evaporates up into a grid, known as the shadow mask, that is placed over the substrate. First the red particles are evaporated, then the grid is shifted ever so slightly, then green is evaporated, then a final shift for blue. In the end, the panel has RGB pixels evenly distributed across the whole thing. Since you have to hang the shadow mask up under the substrate, there's a chance it could sag on larger screens, so VTE is aimed at smaller screens.

• Organic Vapor Phase Deposition - This is where the vapor is heated up then streamed into a system of "showerheads" that deposit the particles on a cooled substrate.

• Ink-Jet Printing - If the dope can be mixed into liquid form, it can run through technology similar to the stuff inside your printer. Precise depositing of dots on a substrate is easy, but the challenges are turning the dope into a liquid and then depositing the right amount in little wells on the substrate where they can dry.

• Organic Vapor Jet Printing - It's what it sounds like, a printing technique that lets you shoot particles through a printhead and straight onto the substrate. The benefit of this is that you don't have to turn the stuff into a liquid first, and you don't have to worry about getting the particles to dry later. But it's still really really hard.Glass is the easiest thing to use to make OLEDs, because it is rigid and because it is not porous: moisture and oxygen can't get in and ruin the little glowing organic molecules. Plastic is the worst, because it is easily penetrated. Metal foil is a middle ground, because the metal side keeps the molecules secure, but the glowing side still needs a special coating, and won't last as long as a glass OLED.

Like phosphors in a plasma TV, OLED materials fade over their lifetime, even when tightly sealed. At this point, red and green last hundreds of thousands of hours, so they could easily last as long as other technologies. But blue is still an issue. In any situation, it's going to be the first to go, though some OLED panels are now being rated in the 50,000-hour range.

Next up for UDC is a working flexible screen on metal, hopefully sooner than later. [UDC]

–Video was shot and edited by the multitalented Benny Goldman; I took the photos.

More sights from Gizmodo's UDC field trip:

3mm thick. This one isn't HD, however, capping out at 1,024 x 600. No word on when we'll see either of them, but this is a very promising sign of what OLED is capable of. – Louis Ramirez

Display 2007 [via Impress]

Best of all, once they get this thing perfected, researchers think the devices will be 100% efficient, turning all of the energy applied to them into light. As soon as they work out that pesky problem of moisture sensitivity, these OLEDs will be good to go for sheets of light.

Natural light 'to reinvent bulbs' [BBC News]

Fast-forward six months, and the product's designer, Artemy Lebedev, is trying answer that question with a smaller control panel, the Optimus mini three (pictured at left), that has, you guessed it, just three keys on it and acts as an additional keyboard, sitting next to a regular keyboard and performing customized functions. The product will sell for $100 and will be available in May, according to Lebedev. At .8 x .8 inches, each key is larger than those on the prototype full keyboard, and each contains its own color OLED-display with 96x96-pixel resolution, 262,000 colors and a viewing angle of 160 degrees, according to Lebedev. The tiny displays are capable of five-frame-per-second animations, so not only could users view context-sensitive indicators, but a clock, stock market updates, weather forecasts, or any other information inside any or all the keys. According to designer Lebedev, the only difference between this mini three and the full-sized Optimus keyboard is the size and the quantity of OLEDs. He says Optimus will begin taking pre-orders this week for the mini three. Lebedev also insists that a working prototype of the full-sized keyboard will be forthcoming sometime this year.

Interview with Lebedev and Pics [Primo Technology]